Although, as a type III interferon that shares signaling pathways with type I interferons, 24 it most likely protects via a direct mechanism on the hepatocyte, possibly inhibiting HCV replication like the related molecule IFN-λ1 25 or rendering cells less susceptible to infection. 26 Additionally, IFN-λ2 does not appear to directly affect NK cells. 27 Therefore, there is a biologic rationale for the separation of these 2 genetic effects. One model for resistance to, or resolution of, HCV
infection is that possession of multiple independent protective factors may synergize to provide protection against chronic infection so that individuals with more protective factors have a greater chance of resolution of HCV infection. Our data do not support this hypothesis. Instead, we propose that KIR:HLA and IL28B define 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of individuals selleck chemicals who are relatively protected against chronic HCV infection. Future genetic studies of resolution of HCV infection should stratify for these genotypes to take this heterogeneity into account. The authors thank Dr Bernard North for statistical advice. “
“Evidence from
a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies among adults indicated an association between whole grain (WG) intake and reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and overweight [1]. Whole grain intake among school-aged children (third-sixth grades) and female adolescents was associated with lower body mass index z-scores and lower risk of overweight in young adulthood, respectively Selleckchem OSI744 [2] and [3]. The protective health benefits of WG have been attributed to numerous components including total dietary fiber and bioactive compounds
in bran and germ such as vitamins, minerals, trace elements, polyphenols, alkylresorcinols, and Suplatast tosilate carotenoids [4], [5], [6] and [7]. US Dietary Guideline recommendations indicate that at least half of all grains be consumed as WGs [8], which typically includes at least 3 ounce equivalents (oz eq)/d for adults and 1.5 to 4 oz eq/d for children/adolescents, depending on age, sex, and energy needs [8]. However, US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999 to 2004 data showed that only 1.5% to 4.3% of children/adolescents, 4.8% of adults aged 19 to 50 years, and 6.6% of adults aged 51+ years consumed at least 3 WG oz eq/d [9] and [10]. Most children/adolescents and adults also do not consume the recommended grams/day of total dietary fiber [11]. Adequate Intake (AI) values of 19 to 25 g/d were established for children aged 1 to 8 years, 31 to 38 g/d for boys aged 9 to 18 years, 26 g/d for girls aged 9 to 13 years, and 21 to 38 g/d for women and men 19 years or older from Dietary Reference Intakes [12]. Based on data from NHANES 2003 to 2006, less than 3% of children/adolescents had a usual fiber intake that was greater than the AI [11].