Taken together, our results demonstrate that PD-L2 is involved in the arginase/iNOS balance during T. cruzi infection having a protective role in the immune response against the parasite. Trypanosoma cruzi is an intracellular protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a debilitating illness that affects Latin-American countries and results in cardiac complications and digestive disorders. During the early stages of infection, this parasite is found within macrophages (Mφs) and they may either inhibit parasite replication RAD001 mw or provide a favourable environment in which it can multiply and be disseminated.1 In addition, Mφs are important effector cells involved in various phases

of the immune response, such as phagocytosis, antigen presentation and secretion of bioactive molecules.2 The activation of Mφs, by T helper type 1 (Th1) cytokines or bacterial products such as lipopolysaccharide or CpG DNA, induces nitric oxide (NO) production. This provides a key defensive

element in various infectious diseases. On the other hand, Mφs differentiated in the presence of Th2 cytokines enhance their capacity for endocytosis but do not exert enhanced killing functions towards microbes.3–5 Furthermore, NO production is counteracted by the expression of arginase I (Arg I), an enzyme that competes with inducible SCH727965 cost nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) for l-arginine, leading to the production of l-ornithine and urea.6–8 In addition, iNOS/Arg I balance is important during T. cruzi infection because a controlled response is necessary to eliminate the parasite and to avoid tissue damage. Cytokines, such as interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-12 (IL-12) and tumour necrosis factor-α are produced at high levels in response to the infection,9–11 leading to an increase in iNOS expression in Mφs.12–14 As a result, NO synthesis is enhanced, contributing to parasite killing and host survival.13,15,16

However, the excessive production of NO has been proposed as one of the mechanisms that decreases the proliferative ability of T cells from infected mice and it has also been implicated in lymphocyte apoptosis.12 Several studies have shown that Arg I expression and activity are induced by different parasites or parasite antigens controlling the collateral tissue damage.17–25 However, Arg I produces polyamines, from l-arginine, Tenofovir research buy which are essential for growth and differentiation of several parasites.17–25 On the other hand, this enzyme suppresses the T-cell response26,27 and this suppression might be mediated through different mechanisms. Among them, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive action of polyamines28,29 and depletion of l-arginine in the T-cell environment, which leads to CD3ζ chain down-regulation.20,27 Furthermore, it is currently recognized that l-arginine metabolism influences the relationship between innate and acquired immune responses.