Dietary amino acids are the major fuel for the small intestinal mucosa as well as they are important substrates for the synthesis of intestinal proteins such as nitric oxide polyamines and other products with enormous biological activity [41]. Glutamine was one of the few free click here amino acid related compounds which was found at the highest level

in HC children. A low level of glutamine was also previously found in CD children and adults [22]. Specific amino acids and related compounds, including glutamine, were shown to possess a therapeutic role in gut diseases [41]. This study confirmed the hypothesis that CD is associated with intestinal and faecal dysbiosis, which is related to certain bacterial species. Recently, it was shown that potential celiac VX-689 in vitro subjects and overt celiac subjects show differences in the urine metabolites and a very similar serum metabolic profile [42]. Metabolic alterations

selleck inhibitor may precede the development of small intestinal villous atrophy and provide a further rationale for early institution of GFD in patients with potential CD [42]. As shown by both microbiology and metabolome analyses, the GFD lasting at least two years did not completely restore the microbiota and, consequently, the metabolome of CD children. Probably, the addition of prebiotics and probiotics to GFD might restore the balance of microbiota and metabolome of CD children. Conclusions As shown by the microbiology and metabolome studies, the gluten-free diet lasting at least two years did not completely restore the microbiota mafosfamide and, consequently,

the metabolome of CD children. Combining the results of this work with those from previous reports [9, 10, 16, 22, 27, 37], it seems emerge that microbial indeces (e.g., ratio between faecal cell density of lactic acid bacteria-Bifidobacterium vs. Bacteroides-Enterobacteria) and levels of some metabolites (e.g., ethyl-acetate, octyl-acetate, SCFA and glutamine) are signatures of CD patients. Further studies, using a major number of children and a complete characterization of all microbial groups, are in progress to find a statistical correlation between the microbiota and metabolome of T-CD compared to HC children. Methods Subjects Two groups of children (6 – 12 years of age) (Table 5) were included in the study: (i) nine-teen symptom-free CD patients, who had been on a GFD for at least 2 years (treated CD children, T-CD) (children numbered: 1 – 19 T-CD); and (ii) fifteen children without celiac disease and other known food intolerance undergoing upper endoscopy for symptoms related to functional dyspepsia and in whom endoscopy showed no signs of disease (non-celiac children) (children numbered: 20 – 34 HC). The pathology was diagnosed according to criteria given by the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition.