g., motor tone, movement feedbacks…) and in emotional/behavioral responses (e.g., selleck chemical Nutlin-3a sensitivity to pain, memory tasks…). Afferences of the cingulate cortex come from associative areas of the frontal, parietal, and chemical information temporal lobes, subiculum, septal nucleus, and thalamus (medial-dorsal and anterior). For example, anterior thalamus itself receives his afferences

from the mamillary bodies, connecting memory with emotion. Slight dysregulations at the level of the mamillo-thalamic tract might also result in dysfunctions of the cingulate gyrus, which could reflect altered sound memory during the auditory task due Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to more stressful conditions for AAT subjects (i.e., exposure to scanner noise). Premotor dysfunction In AAT subjects, we have detected abnormal activations Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in deep gray matter, including substantia nigra, and parts of the premotor cortex. Both structures are involved in movement preparation

in response to a stimulus (Schwarz et al. 1984a, 1984b; Boecker et al. 2008) and in spasticity (Laplane et al. 1977; Baykushev et al. 2008). In our study, target sound perception presumably triggered Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ear and thumb muscles preparation or feedback regulation requires in muscle reflex. Nevertheless, one premotor cortex hyperactivation was somatotopically localized in the mouth/jaw region rather than thumb region; it could suggest a role for a muscle involved in swallowing or orofacial activity, for instance, tensor tympani muscle. A conservative hypothesis is that such sensorimotor disturbances were one of the consequences of the emotional stress experienced by the AAT subjects. A similar explanation may apply in the case of the cross-modal anomalies that we observed in the visual associative cortex (Valsecchi Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and Turatto 2009). Brodmann area 43 dysfunction We found hyperactivities in BA 43 and BA 43/40 in AAT subjects, correlating Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with tinnitus periodicity and handicap. In a previous study, we have demonstrated activation of a limited region in BA 43 at the caudal edge of the somatosensory

cortex in response to movements of tympanic membrane caused Cilengitide by gentle pressure variations. Besides the fact that BA 43 is clearly related to gustation and swallowing, this particular BA 43 region was demonstrated to correspond to pressure activities in oropharynx (Haslinger et al. 2010) and to middle-ear pressure sensitivity (Job et al. 2011). In our study, the hyperactivation of BA 43 and BA 43/40 was located close to the previously identified region although deeper in the sulcus. deep sensitivity (i.e., muscles, tendons, joints) in the somatosensory cortex is known to be represented mainly within the depth of the sulci (Krubitzer et al. 2004). It is therefore likely that AAT subjects present dysfunction of the deep sensitivity of the middle ear. In osteoarticular and muscle systems, proprioception is mediated by intrafusal fibers of muscle spindle.