Perennial grasses, such as switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L), are expected to play a vital role in meeting these biomass demands.

Determining optimum nitrogen fertilization practices and harvest timing will be essential to maximize yields, ensure stand longevity, and optimize feedstock quality. A field experiment was conducted from 2009 to 2012 at six locations in Illinois to determine the effect that N source (urea and slow-release N), N application rate (0, 56, 112, 168, and 224 kg N ha(-1)), and harvest timing (late summer, late fall, and early spring) have on above LM-1149 ground biomass yield and quality. The nitrogen source generally had no effect on biomass yield, moisture content or composition. Biomass yields increased with increasing N rates at each harvest timing with the highest yields occurring with 224, 168, and 112 kg N ha(-1) for summer (12.9 Mg ha(-1)), fall (9.0 Mg ha(-1)), and spring (6.7 Mg ha(-1)) harvests, respectively. Moisture content was not affected by N rate and steadily

decreased with delayed PFTα cell line harvest timings. In general, cellulose, and hemicellulose contents were highest and lignin, protein and ash contents lowest when plots received 56 kg N ha(-1) at all harvest timings. Based on this study, we recommend applying N fertilizer at 56 to 112 kg N ha(-1) and harvesting from late fall to early spring to optimize switchgrass production in Illinois. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“That the fear and stress of life-threatening experiences can leave an indelible trace on the brain is most clearly exemplified by post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Many researchers studying the animal model of PTSD have adopted utilizing exposure to a predator as a life-threatening psychological stressor, to emulate the experience in humans, and the resulting body of literature has demonstrated numerous long-lasting neurological effects paralleling those in PTSD patients. Even though much more extreme,

predator-induced fear and stress in animals in the wild was, until the PF-04929113 purchase 1990s, not thought to have any lasting effects, whereas recent experiments have demonstrated that the effects on free-living animals are sufficiently long-lasting to even affect reproduction, though the lasting neurological effects remain unexplored. We suggest neuroscientists and ecologists both have much to gain from collaborating in studying the neurological effects of predator-induced fear and stress in animals in the wild. We outline the approaches taken in the lab that appear most readily translatable to the field, and detail the advantages that studying animals in the wild can offer researchers investigating the “”predator model of PTSD.