Similar to the Helicobacter model, IL-23 was responsible for inducing IL-17 production and colon-specific BEZ235 price tissue inflammation, and depletion of the Sca-1+ ILCs prevented development of colitis [3]. The idea that IL-17 production by ILCs can contribute to autoimmune disease has also been explored in humans. IL-17-producing cells are increased in the intestine of patients with ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease [8]. CD3− cells contributed significantly to the production of IL-17, both IL-17a and IL-17f mRNA

transcripts were increased in CD3− cells isolated from the intestines of patients with IBD as compared with transcripts in healthy controls [8]. In addition, there is an increased frequency of ILCs in the colon and ileum of patients this website with Crohn’s disease but not ulcerative

colitis [8]. However, since the absolute numbers of IL-17-producing ILCs in the inflamed intestine are very small, it is still unclear whether these cells play a direct role in driving IBD. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine their exact role. There have been a small number of reports showing that NK cells produce IL-17. Since human NKR-LTi cells have been shown to secrete IL-17 [82], careful analysis and interpretation of the results are essential to avoid confusion between IL-17 production by NKR-LTi cells and that by classical NK cells. In the steady state, NK cells in the spleen do not express RORγt [5]; however, upon infection with Toxoplasma gondii, splenic NK cells have enhanced

RORγt expression and secrete IL-17 [4]. A recent report has also shown that CD56+CCR4+ human peripheral blood NK cells produce both IL-17 and IFN-γ and express the transcription factors RORγt and Tbet [98]. These cells are not NKR-LTi cells, since the NK cells in this study did not express IL-7R (CD127), nor IL-23R, and since NKR-LTi cells are not thought to exist in human peripheral blood [82, 89]. iNKT cells are a subset of T cells that express a semi-invariant TCR that recognizes glycolipids presented by CD1d molecules expressed on APCs. There have been a number of recent reports demonstrating that iNKT Rho cells play a role in host protection against infection via the production of IL-17. Expression of RORγt in developing iNKT precursor cells is associated with the development of a preprogrammed IL-17-producing subset that does not express NK1.1 [99]. The signals that induce RORγt expression in iNKT precursors and lineage commitment have not yet been defined. These NK1.1− iNKT cells are capable of secreting IL-17 not only in response to stimulation with the synthetic ligand α-galactosylceramide or its analogue PBS-57, but also following stimulation with natural ligands, including LPS or glycolipids derived from Sphingomonas wittichii and Borrelia burgdorferi [100]. This IL-17-producing NK1.1− subset is present at high frequency in the lung, comprising up to 40% of pulmonary iNKT cells in naïve mice.