This opposing regulation has been demonstrated in epithelial cells, where mTORC1 signaling was increased and mTORC2 signaling was decreased due to

the knockout of Syndecan 4 (Partovian et al., 2008). Interestingly, it was noted that epithelial cell size was decreased, suggesting that decreased mTORC2 signaling, even in the presence of increased mTORC1 signaling, is capable of decreasing cell size. Recent evidence, in cultured cells, suggests that the interplay between these two mTOR complexes may be mediated in part by the ability of the mTORC1 substrate p70S6K to phosphorylate Rictor at residue Thr-1135 (Dibble et al., 2009, Julien et al., 2010 and Treins et al., 2010). Such phosphorylation of Rictor may decrease mTORC2 activity, as two groups have found that mutation of Thr-1135 to Ala increases phosphorylation of AKT Talazoparib solubility dmso at Thr-473, an mTORC2 specific site (Dibble et al., 2009 and Julien Androgen Receptor animal study et al., 2010), although other groups do not observe such an alteration in mTORC2 activity (Boulbes et al., 2010 and Treins et al.,

2010). The potential interplay between mTORC1 and mTORC2 signals highlights the complexity of dissecting their roles in the opiate-mediated effects in VTA in vivo. We propose the model depicted in Figure 7. Chronic opiates, through a reduction in BDNF signaling, reduce AKT activity via reduced phosphorylation at its two main sites. This occurs through two mechanisms: a decrease in total levels of IRS2 and a decrease in mTORC2 activity.

Epothilone B (EPO906, Patupilone) These mechanisms may not be functionally distinct, as downregulation of IRS2 may also lead to decreased mTORC2 activity, consistent with the idea that phosphorylation of the two AKT sites occurs sequentially (Pearce et al., 2010 and Oh and Jacinto, 2011). Reduced AKT-mTORC2 activity then increases VTA neuronal excitability via reduced phosphorylation of GABAA β-subunits (Krishnan et al., 2008 and Wang et al., 2003) and decreased expression of K+ channels. Whether mTORC2 decreases VTA DA activity only via AKT modulation of GABAA and K+ channel activity or via additional mechanisms has yet to be determined. Such increased VTA DA neuron excitability directly triggers shrinkage in the soma size of these neurons, which we propose is a key cellular adaptation that impairs DA output to target regions and mediates reward tolerance. Given that mTORC2′s first noted function was in regulating actin cytoskeleton organization (Sarbassov et al., 2004), decreased mTORC2 activity may alter VTA DA morphology independent of AKT and cell excitability, but this will require identification of additional mTORC2 substrates, a major gap of knowledge in the field. This scheme leaves unanswered two key questions. By what mechanism does chronic morphine repress IRS2 expression, and by what mechanism does chronic morphine induce mTORC1 activity despite a reduction in AKT signaling and lack of alteration in several other upstream proteins.