Transcript profiling: Microarray data are available on the GEO database: accession number GSE60557. Sina Bartfeld was responsible for the study design, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of data, and writing of the manuscript; Tülay Bayram was responsible for the acquisition of data; Marc van de Wetering was this website responsible for the analysis of data; Meritxell Huch was responsible for support during the initial phase of the project; Robert Vries was responsible for ethical approval; Harry Begthel was responsible for histology; Pekka Kujala was responsible for the EM studies; Peter

Peters was responsible for the supervision of EM studies; and Hans Clevers was responsible for the supervision and writing of the manuscript. “
“Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a biologically heterogeneous disease that develops via distinct pathways involving combinations of

genetic and epigenetic changes.1 Defining tumor subtypes based on pathway-driven alterations2 has the potential to improve prognostication and guide targeted therapy. Two well-described pathways of colorectal tumorigenesis include chromosomal instability (CIN) and microsatellite instability (MSI), the latter being a consequence of deficient DNA mismatch repair (dMMR).1 and 3 Deficient MMR can result from a germline mutation in an MMR gene (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2), ie, Lynch syndrome (LS). More commonly, dMMR is sporadic and is due to epigenetic inactivation of MLH1 that is generally associated with hypermethylation of promoter regions of cancer-specific selleck compound genes known as the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) high. 3, 4 and 5 Sporadic AZD2281 dMMR, but not LS, tumors frequently carry the activating somatic V600E mutation in exon 15 of the BRAF oncogene. 6 BRAF is a member of the Raf kinase family that is a regulator of the MAP kinase/ERK signaling pathway. 7 and 8BRAFV600E mutations occur downstream from and are mutually exclusive of KRAS codon 12 and 13 mutations 8 that are detected in 30%–40% of CRCs. 9 Both sporadic and LS-associated cancers with

dMMR display a clinical phenotype characterized by right-sided location, high-grade histology, and abundant tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. 10 and 11 The association of BRAF, KRAS, and MMR individually with prognosis has been studied in colon cancers by ourselves 11, 12 and 13 and others. 4, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 However, development of a classifier using biomarker combinations has the potential to identify distinct tumor subtypes with varying prognoses. Knowledge of pathways of colorectal tumorigenesis supports the subtyping of colon cancers using data for dMMR/MSI, MLH1 methylation or CIMP, and mutations in BRAFV600E and KRAS oncogenes as proposed previously. 2 and 20 Tumor classification with these biomarkers includes serrated pathway subtypes in addition to subtypes reflecting the more typical adenoma-to-carcinoma sequence.